Women in Psychology Essay Example

Women in Psychology Essay Mary Whiton Calkins is best regarded for the contributions that she made in the field of psychology. She is among the few women to enter the field of psychology in the initial era. She had witnessed many obstacles in life; which she overturned by willingness to succeed, career and education. She set her as an example to all other women in her generation who struggled due to gender inequality. She was like a ray of hope for other women to follow. Her achievements and contributions in the field of psychology raised a voice against the social taboo of gender bias and discrimination against women. She was a commendable doctoral student but still couldn’t attain access into Harvard’s seminars and its laboratories. Her passion towards the subject of psychology and her self-determination encouraged her to open the first psychology laboratory in 1891 at Wellesley College in the United States. She invented paired-associate technique in the laboratory of Wellesley College. The gender inequality taboo deprived her from the doctorate award by the Harvard. This struggle from injustice did not discourage her to contribute to the society in a broader sense. She was crowned to be the first woman president of the American Psychological Association and the American Philosophical Association. Background, Early Life Education We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Psychology specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Psychology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Women in Psychology specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Mary Whiton Calkins was born in Hartford, Connecticut on March 30, 1863 in a German family to Charlotte and Wolcott Calkins (cited in Zusne, 1984). Out of the five children, Mary Calkins was the eldest. She was very close to her mother and her family. Mary went to the local elementary school where she learnt German in private sessions. In 1880, at the age of seventeen she shifted to Newton, Massachusetts when her family decided to move due to her father’s job transfer. In 1881, Mary Calkins took admission in Newton High School (cited in Furumoto, 1980). She graduated from Newton High School where she wrote a graduation essay: The Apology Plato should have written: a vindication of the character Xantippi (cited in Johnson, 1997 McHenry, 1995). She then entered Smith College in the year 1882 as a sophomore. In the Spring of 1883, unfortunately her sister Maude died due to illness. This sad experience created a deep hollow in her inner-self throughout her life. She opted to stay back at home to impart education to her younger siblings and to support her mother who was ill. This didn’t fend her to learn continuously at home. She then learnt Greek which supplemented her study of classics. She rejoined Smith College in the year 1884 as a senior student and graduated in 1885 with in-depth study of classics and philosophy. (cited in Johnson, 1997). In 1886, the Calkins family went to Europe for sixteen months where she nurtured her knowledge of classics in the University of Leipzig (cited in McHenry, 1995). She returned to Massachusetts in 1887 and joined Wellesley College as a tutor in Greek to impart knowledge of the subject to women (cited in Furumoto, 1980). Theoretical Perspective Mary Whiton Calkins submitted many important theoretical facts to the world of psychology. The two forms of psychology that was popular at the time were â€Å"science of selves† and the â€Å"atomistic psychology†. She called it a compatible relation between functional and structural psychology. She engaged herself to seek compatibility between the doctrine of psychological views with the views of liberty and fundamental values of people that she perceived in day-to-day life. She also believed that awareness of one’s own existence which collectively put forward the thoughts and feelings of common people need to be observed from the viewpoint of efforts and actions. The thoughts and feelings should also be observed that existed in the mind. She could easily distinguish between these two viewpoints due to her knowledge of classics and religion. She used Professor Munsterberg’s distinction of the objective view with that of the subjective view. This made her to introduce the principle of â€Å"the double standpoint† in the field of psychology. She then published her first article on â€Å"self-psychology† in 1900. This article formed the base and was theoretically of prime importance to write the book â€Å"An Introduction to Psychology† in October, 1901. Calkins believed in â€Å"personalistic absolutism† which made her to gradually research in the field of philosophy. At that time, psychological views showed a general tendency towards behavioristic approaches. She believed that consciousness occurred personally and the mind would get transformed from a low level of being and would change according to the variance in environment and behavorial laws that guided an individual. Contributions to Psychology A significant contribution that she made in the field of psychology was that in September 1891, when she opened the first psychological laboratory for Women at Wellesley College. For many years she wrote articles which reported experiment results. She also helped many of her students in publishing journals and in the research of psychological aspects. She worked under the supervision of Edmund C. Sanford on a research level project which dealt with studying dreams and its contents in the year 1891 for 49 days. They collectively recorded 375 dreams and extracted vital information which was later believed to help the field of neurosciences. They submitted their research report at Clark University in the first annual meeting of the American Psychological Association. She contributed vastly to the field of psychology by inventing the Paired-Associate technique. This research was regarded to be considered as a subject of applied psychology which was used as a tool for human learning. Calkins devoted majority of his life in the research of Self-Psychology as she was interested in day-to-day experiences of selves and its importance in lives of common people. In her career, she wrote four books and published hundred-and-five articles in the field of philosophy and psychology. She also published The Persistent Problems in Philosophy and The Good Man and The Good in 1907 and 1918 respectively. She published her autobiography in the year 1930 with the motto to change psychologists into self-psychologists. Conclusion Although, Mary Whiton Calkins contributed vastly in the field of psychology and philosophy through her research activities, yet she was denied doctoral degree from Harvard and was disallowed to present her thesis as she was a woman. She even declined the invitation of accepting a doctorate degree from the Radcliffe College due to her selfless nature. She as a female ahead of her time had already proved to the entire world when she became the first female president of both the American Philosophical Association and the American Psychological Association in 1918 and 1905 respectively. She condemned the discrimination against women for the right to cast vote. Mary Calkins was detected with an incurable cancer in 1926. She retired from the Wellesley College as Research Professor in 1929. She died at Newton, Massachusetts on February 27, 1830 (cited in Zusne, 1984). She will be remembered as a feminist who was an eminent scholar and an admirable teacher. She strongly believed in idealism. She faced many criticisms in her era due to her ideologies but stood against it. She provided explanations and clarifications patiently to safeguard idealism against racism and pragmatism.

Free Essays on Mans Search for Meaning

Man's Search for Meaning The purpose of this paper is for me to critique and give my opinion of the book â€Å"Man’s Search for Meaning† by Viktor Frankl. This inspiring book expresses Frankl’s own experiences by analyzing and drawing conclusions of the events in his life during the holocaust. These life-altering experiences reveal some universal ideals that I have verified in my life and some philosophies that I have verified in my life and some concept that he portrays and I find to be true is that we all have been created on this earth for a special reason. This story is of survival and of deep meaning optimism. Through his unconditional love and faith, Frankl survived such a trial and was able to create this work of art and his psychotherapeutic method to treat man. This book has enforced and provided new and interesting and helpful ideals for me. After Frankl writes of his concentration camp life he includes a section on his theory of logotherapy. I see it as an effort to rehumanize psychiatry to allow for spiritual quest and transcendence. He recognizes the need for a spiritual life. I can relate to this from a personal experience in my life. A very good friend of mine was dying of cancer and she told me that there was something missing in her life. She was in great physical shape and very smart, but she told me that she needed to get back in touch with her spiritual life. Once she was able to reconnect with her spiritual side, she dealt with her suffering and died. Frankl says that a man who becomes conscious of the responsibility he bears toward a human being who affectionately waits for him, or to an unfinished work, will never be able to throw away his life. He knows the â€Å"Why† for his/her existence will be able to bear almost anything. My friend understood this and was able to complete her life in p eace.! I believe we are all patients living in a world trying to make sense of who or what we ar... Free Essays on Man's Search For Meaning Free Essays on Man's Search For Meaning Man's Search for Meaning The purpose of this paper is for me to critique and give my opinion of the book â€Å"Man’s Search for Meaning† by Viktor Frankl. This inspiring book expresses Frankl’s own experiences by analyzing and drawing conclusions of the events in his life during the holocaust. These life-altering experiences reveal some universal ideals that I have verified in my life and some philosophies that I have verified in my life and some concept that he portrays and I find to be true is that we all have been created on this earth for a special reason. This story is of survival and of deep meaning optimism. Through his unconditional love and faith, Frankl survived such a trial and was able to create this work of art and his psychotherapeutic method to treat man. This book has enforced and provided new and interesting and helpful ideals for me. After Frankl writes of his concentration camp life he includes a section on his theory of logotherapy. I see it as an effort to rehumanize psychiatry to allow for spiritual quest and transcendence. He recognizes the need for a spiritual life. I can relate to this from a personal experience in my life. A very good friend of mine was dying of cancer and she told me that there was something missing in her life. She was in great physical shape and very smart, but she told me that she needed to get back in touch with her spiritual life. Once she was able to reconnect with her spiritual side, she dealt with her suffering and died. Frankl says that a man who becomes conscious of the responsibility he bears toward a human being who affectionately waits for him, or to an unfinished work, will never be able to throw away his life. He knows the â€Å"Why† for his/her existence will be able to bear almost anything. My friend understood this and was able to complete her life in p eace.! I believe we are all patients living in a world trying to make sense of who or what we ar... Free Essays on Man's Search for Meaning This book, Man’s Search for Meaning was set in World War II Europe concentration camps. This book was about the prisoner’s minds and their emotions. It is safe to assume that an average citizen knows about the torturous ordeal the Germans put the Jewish people through. It is not safe to assume though that the average citizen knows what went through the minds of these prisoners and what type of emotions these prisoners expressed. This books author thought the prisoners ordeals were in phases, they showed emotions in three different phases. The first phase was the minds of these prisoners immediately after being detained and herded off to the several different concentration camps. The second phase was their minds after incarceration and them becoming accustomed to the everyday life of prison life. The third phase was their minds after being released and no longer a prisoner. This book showed the reader that some minds are stronger and can endure more than others. The mind can expand when you need it to expand, it can cause your body and soul to endure one more hit, one more night without food. It can also fail you. The mind is as strong as you make it. This book showed the reader that the mind can make your life more suitable for your lifestyle. The mind can make you live for tomorrow if you have something to live for, even if it is only in your mind. The mind can also make you not want to live. If your mind has nothing to live for, eventually death will come. This book showed this writer that life is in your mind; your mind dictates emotions and how you respond to certain situations. The mind will let you live or will let you die.... Free Essays on Man's search for Meaning Man’s Search for Meaning is a relatively short but powerful novel about an experience through a concentration camp from the eyes of psychologist and author, Victor E. Frankl. In this novel, he illustrates the relevance of psychology through his experience at a concentration camp during World War II. With psychology interwoven through the passages of his novel, he makes a clear picture of the minds of the prisoners, what they, the prisoners, including himself, suffered through and how they survived. During this novel, he states that, â€Å"What was really needed was a fundamental change in our attitude toward life. We had to learn ourselves and, furthermore, we had to teach the despairing men, that it did not really matter what we expected from life, but rather what life expected from us. We needed to stop asking about the meaning of life, and instead to think of ourselves as those who were being questioned by life-daily and hourly† (pg. 85). In this quote, Frankl is explaining that people should not seek what they want from life but, on the other hand, endeavor to find the goal that life has in store for them. By seeking the meaning of life, we overlook what life desires from us. Instead of searching for the meaning of life, we should be awaiting the questions that life has for us in order to fulfill it’s design for us. The point of life is not the answers that we seek from life to find meaning, it is the questions from life that we ourselves must answer to uncover that meaning, every hour of the day and every day of our lives. It is the responsibility of the ones that understand this meaning to teach the â€Å"despairing men† that do not understand. We must take their attitudes, their wrong perceptions of how to seek the meaning of life, and change that so they may find the truth, that life dictates what questions we answer, that we do not ask the questions of life. I agree with Frankl’s statement because I understand wha... Free Essays on Man's Search for Meaning Man’s Search for Meaning is a relatively short but powerful novel about an experience through a concentration camp from the eyes of psychologist and author, Victor E. Frankl. In this novel, he illustrates the relevance of psychology through his experience at a concentration camp during World War II. With psychology interwoven through the passages of his novel, he makes a clear picture of the minds of the prisoners, what they, the prisoners, including himself, suffered through and how they survived. During this novel, he states that, â€Å"What was really needed was a fundamental change in our attitude toward life. We had to learn ourselves and, furthermore, we had to teach the despairing men, that it did not really matter what we expected from life, but rather what life expected from us. We needed to stop asking about the meaning of life, and instead to think of ourselves as those who were being questioned by life-daily and hourly† (pg. 85). In this quote, Frankl is explaining that people should not seek what they want from life but, on the other hand, endeavor to find the goal that life has in store for them. By seeking the meaning of life, we overlook what life desires from us. Instead of searching for the meaning of life, we should be awaiting the questions that life has for us in order to fulfill it’s design for us. The point of life is not the answers that we seek from life to find meaning, it is the questions from life that we ourselves must answer to uncover that meaning, every hour of the day and every day of our lives. It is the responsibility of the ones that understand this meaning to teach the â€Å"despairing men† that do not understand. We must take their attitudes, their wrong perceptions of how to seek the meaning of life, and change that so they may find the truth, that life dictates what questions we answer, that we do not ask the questions of life. I agree with Frankl’s statement because I understand wha...

The issue of regional currency unification Essay - 3

The issue of regional currency unification - Essay Example In the recent past, the world has witnessed an increasing interest in economic integration and currency unification among countries in specific regions. The idea of currency unification is not new and can be dated back to 1961 when Mundell coined the concept of Optimum Currency Areas (OCA) as noted by . Currency unification has been one of the key ambitions of the Gulf Cooperation council (GCC) countries. Soon after the formation of GCC, the region’s goal for the formation of unified currency system was adopted in the article 22 of the council’s unified economic agreement of June 1982, which states that: â€Å"The member states shall seek to coordinate their financial, monetary, and banking policies and enhance cooperation between monetary agencies and central bank, including an attempt tom establish a common currency in order tom further their desired economic integration† . assert that the European economic and monetary union (EMU) model of 1999 which set the pace for the adoption of Euro by eleven countries as well as the continuing efforts by the GCC member states to integrate their economies have contributed to raise this ambition a new. It is worth noting at this point that the remarkable convergence of the exchange rate policies adhered in the GCC countries pegs to the US dollar. In accordance to exchange rate arrangement formally reported to the IMF, only the rial Oman is pegged to the dollar.

Literature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 3

Literature - Essay Example It is also clear that their heir feelings of nationalistic pride would have been greatly damaged following the humiliation of losing a war they perceived to be a draw. Germans were well aware that the rest of the world looked upon them with contempt and as the losers, giving them plenty of motivation for a new fight. This is why it can be said that the treaty was largely responsible for the Nazi’s rise to power and the inevitable violence of WWII. A great deal of the literature of this period remains focused on the individual and his or her attempts to discover some form of meaning in their lives. For example, Luitov in â€Å"My First Goose† attempts to find his place in a crazy world by abandoning his faith and his homeland in order to become one of the Cossacks. In the crazy world of the uneducated and rough Cossacks, though, he remains empty and unfulfilled because he is quickly branded an outsider and teased. His attempts to join the men in his rough treatment of the old woman and her goose also leave him unfulfilled because he is already feeling the ‘grating’ in his heart indicating that he has retained more of his family’s belief system than he had cared to admit. These stories typically illustrate that while we may not have much control over our lives or be provided with a world that makes any sense, we still have an element of individual control over the choices we make. Our reactions to the results of these choices help us to define who we are as people and help us develop our own sense of meaning. The Occupation of Japan went smoothly because the Americans didn’t try to come in and completely re-seat the Japanese administrative structures. However, things weren’t necessarily all that smooth. Postwar Japan was devastated by the fire bombing, living spaces were scarce and fuel and food were even less plentiful. When the U.S. went into Iraq, though, one of the first things they did was to remove the existing governmental

Postmodernism Revise Essay Example for Free

Postmodernism Revise Essay Discussion Question One, Due Thursday, 600 words Compare and contrast the idea of a â€Å"legitimate voice† from the modern and the postmodern perspective.    Legitimate Voice refers to the capability of the people to act upon what they actually perceive upon. This identifies the undeniable want of people to prove that what they believe in could actually be achieved thus giving them the chance to make a huge difference upon the society that they are living in. being a postmodernist is not an easy status to carry. This is because of the fact that carrying such status is something that is needs to be given high level of attention as postmodernists actually believe that although humans are able to realize their capability of changing his own society, he was not able to accomplish the best possible achievement that he is expected to gain based form the time that he has been given to change. Understanding modernism, it should occur to the people that making a change are not simply the aim of progress. It is to improve the major things that are found in the society today with a means of actually handling the present times with the vivid picture of what the future could possibly hold for them as the major actors of change. The application of legitimate voice within the process identifies the capability of humans to prove their thoughts through acts of improvement. The point of legitimacy should be strongly valued in applying modernization in the society. Whatever the ideas are and how well they fit to the community’s present description of improving success must likely be involved equally with each other. It is only through this that the changes implied are assured to give rightful effects and benefits to the people of the present society as extended towards the human population in the future. True, modernization is a major issue that is dealt with by every individual as well as every nation in the world today. It is through the belief of this idealism that people are able to hone their capabilities of handling major changes to open the society’s path towards a more progressive community that could give them the best results of changes in handling challenges of human society’s life and journey. The modernist’s approach in explaining the intentional use of legitimate voice in the society’s progression is actually focused upon the positivity of the matter and the way that it affects the society, whereas post-modernists actually use it to prove that people are still able to do far more better than what they have already accomplished. Discussion Question Two, Due Sunday 600 words Compare and contrast how arguments were legitimized and defended to the modernists vs. the postmodernists. THE dawn of the 1990’s has brought with it new hopes for world peace. But it has also brought with it an unparalleled uncertainty and confusion. For example, there is great uncertainty over what will happen in nations that are abandoning centrally planned economies that have failed. A number of these lands are moving into free-market capitalism. But many nations that are already capitalist have widespread poverty and unemployment, high inflation and debt. Even the United States has a huge internal debt—some three million dollars—and is also the largest debtor nation in international trade. One result of the world’s economic woes is noted by a New York Times editorial, which said: â€Å"There are more desperately poor people in the world than ever before.† Partly because of growing uncertainties, many have retreated into selfishness: the me-first attitude, material greed, the desire for instant gratification regardless of consequences. Rampant drug abuse is an evidence of this. Christopher Lasch, a professor of history at the University of Rochester, put it this way: â€Å"The moral bottom has dropped out of our culture.† Internationally acclaimed economist Arjo Klamer states: â€Å"Artists, economists, businessmen and families have lost faith in modernist certainties. .  .  . Disillusionment turned out to be an emotion shared by people across fields and disciplines.† Stating that â€Å"confusion prevails,† he added: â€Å"Fragmentation. Emptiness. Irony. Chaos. These are some of the words in vogue. They define the intricate web of post-modernism in which modern people are lost.† It is painfully evident that this world’s political, economic, and social systems do not have permanent remedies for today’s immense problems and uncertainties. Obviously, through the reports sited above, it could be noted that the observation of the society and the impact of the implications of modernization in the society’s system affect the lives of human individuals directly. The constancy of the said idealism as per applied in the society today although happen to affect the lives of the people in both the positive and negative aspects of progress. Meanwhile the debating issues that are raised by the postmodernists actually challenges the people to do better than what they are presently doing, thus giving them the chance to have better benefits from the hard works that they render to the society. Implications Conclusions, Due Monday, 500 words Which postmodernist is most translatable and practically applied to your professional life? Why? Post-modernism is a thought of being continuously in want of making changes as the present changes and improvements are not yet suffice to handle the future challenges that may befall the human race.   In terms of professionalism, the said idealism pays much though the fact that the said thought would likely move people to become more than what they think and perceive they could be. Thinking about these possibilities would likely bring out the best from the individuals who are involved in improving their own ways of progression. Professionalism certainly involves excellence and outstanding thought of improvement and truth. It is through the application of post modernism theories and thoughts that the systems of professional dealings become much easier to deal with and apprehend with as the goals of improvement among the individuals involved rather become much vivid than the usual. The longing for and advancement more than the usual could be proven by the following lines:   Ã¢â‚¬Å"However, if â€Å"modern† science has taught us anything, it is that we are still quite clueless as to how we tick. We are not as smart or advanced as we think we are. Take the medical field, for instance. Granted, we have conquered some diseases and have a good sense of what things hurt us (although the processes of exactly how diseases work is still quite mysterious), as well as how we should take care of our bodies. But these advances aside, medicine is still fairly primitive† (Week 6 Lecture, Dr. Keeney,page 1)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As closely observed, the situation suggests that the current achievements of humans are still not enough. Because of this, the application for wanting much excellence than the usual is designed to make better options of improvement for the people today until they reach the peak point of their capabilities and potentials as human beings making contribution to the success of the communities that they particularly live in.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   As the major theorists of postmodernism places it, the people are more capable of doing more than what they can as well as gaining more than what they normally could achieve. Applying this particular idealism in a professional environment shall indeed point out the need for becoming highly involved with change thus imply developments within the existing system of operations within the organizations that are involved within the situation dealt with by particular individuals. References: Week 6 Lecture, Dr. Keeney. Week 7 lecture. Posted: 01/22/2008 01:55 PM, by: Kyle Keeney. Bringing it all together. Farrell, John. Paranoia and Postmodernism, the epilogue to Paranoia and Modernity: Cervantes to Rousseau (Cornell UP, 2006), 309-327. Giddens, Anthony (1991) Modernity and Self Identity, Cambridge: Polity Press. Grebowicz, Margaret (ed.), Gender After Lyotard. NY: Suny Press, 2007.(ISBN 978-0-7914-6956-9) Groothuis, Douglas. Truth Decay. Downers Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press, 2000. Harvey, David (1989) The Condition of Postmodernity: An Enquiry into the Origins of Cultural Change (ISBN 0-631-16294-1) Hicks, Stephen R. C. (2004) Explaining Postmodernism: Skepticism and Socialism from Rousseau to Foucault (ISBN 1-59247-646-5)

Essay --

The movie is set in early 15th century in England. The Bishop of Ely and the Archbishop of Canterbury scheme to distract young King Henry V from passing a law that might seize asset from the church. They accede to instigate him to invading France. In the throne room, Canterbury tells the King's advisers that Henry should be the successor to the kingship of France in accordance with Salic law. With support of the aristocrats Exeter and Westmoreland, the clergymen try to persuade Henry to begin war on France if his claim on the French crown is defied. Then, Henry calls in Mountjoy, who represents the Dauphin. The Dauphin's response was the delivery of a chest of tennis balls. Opening the chest, Exeter is surprised, but Henry is not disturbed by the contempt. But he resolves to invade France and begins to program his campaign. First, Henry deceives three traitors into reading their own sentence by asking advice to punish a guy who defamed him in the public. When they proposed that he should have no mercy to a betrayer, Henry reveals his acknowledgment of their deception. Exeter indicts them of lese majesty and executes them before crossing the English Channel. Meantime in France, Charles VI, the King of France and his entourages discuss the threat of King Henry. The Dauphin is unaffected by the threat, but Charles and the Constable of France hold anxiety, since Henry's martial ancestors and previous English invasions. With full armor, Exeter arrives and tells them that Henry wants the French crown and tries to forcibly seize it if it is withheld, and gives the Dauphin a contemptuous message. King tells him to wait for a response until the following day. King Henry speeches to his troops to boost their morale and surges Harfleur. W... ... devastated troops defeated the enormous French army. Each soldier’s life is depicted as his struggle in the battle, and he defeats the adversary, and soon the entire troops break through plight situation. Thus, life of a single soldier is deeply associated with the life of the entire soldiers. It implies that in battlefield, every single person shares the same pain and shares the same state of mind. I like this movie because of this implication as well as Henry V’s heroic strength and charisma. Every characters show sophisticated performances, which were more passionate and more realistic than the reality. The time setting is in early 15th century in England, so the characters’ attire and the set designs were just like those of the medieval era and seemed to have no irrelevance. The attire was quite similar to the attire of aristocrats and soldiers at that time.

How Television Media Violence Influences Deviant Behavior, Specifically Criminal Behavior Essay

People watch television as way of relaxing. While there are many educational and entertaining programs on television, there is a lot of negativity in the form of sex and violence. Television programs are not without some king of violence. Since most people spend the bulk of their inactive time relaxing in front of the television, the following hypothesis may be formulated. If people spend most of their time watching television, which is full of subtle and obvious violence, is it then not possible that the programming will influence deviant criminal behavior in them? Accordingly, it is important to analyze the ways in which media violence may influence deviant criminal behavior. In this case, the two variables in this study are television media violence and deviant criminal behavior. Thus, deviant criminal behavior is the dependent (result) variable and television media violence as the independent (causal) variable. Deviant behavior According to Bryant, deviant behavior is easily explained in the context of an individual violating social norms (rules) just because they wish to fulfill/attain some personal goal. Hence, deviant behavior may include violence, aggression and hostility. For instance, a child may eat the last piece of cake that was reserved for later because he wants to eat the cake. Therefore, a superseding self-gratifying consideration would seem to be implicated in deviant behavior (1989). However, as Bryant goes on to point out, deviancy is by no means a simple issue. This is because, most if not all people are at some point in life faced with the opportunity to perform acts of deviancy. The question then is why is that some people are lured to contravening social norms more than others (1989)? Media violence. According to the Center for Media Literacy, there is no one clear and concise definition of media violence. This is because the individuals who are considered experts in the media violence realm measure television violence very differently (2007). Nevertheless, media violence may be defined as the various types of violence shown/displayed in such media as television. Accordingly, when individuals watch television they are exposed to the violence. Watching violence on television increases antisocial (deviant) behavior such as aggressiveness, hostility and even violence towards others. Sometimes these behaviors take on a criminal nature. Various studies have been conducted. In one study, the researchers set up an investigation involving college student with different personality and behavior types. The students had to watch both non violent and what was termed as gratuitously violent programs/films over a period of four days. The aim of the researchers was to find out if regular, consistent exposure to violence would result in violence in the individuals. After the study, the students were placed in stressful situation where they responded in a hostile manner. Continued exposure to the violence may lead the individuals to become more hostile and aggressive and even to engage in such criminal behaviors as robbery with violence, a criminal behavior with serious consequences. In the event of disagreements, they may also act aggressively towards others causing harm to them. Thus, the study helped to show that television media violence does indeed influence deviant behavior. Media violence especially when prolonged and consistent resulted in hostility and aggression in the students of both sexes even when there was no provocation. It also led to involvement and participation in other behaviors that are also criminal (Harris, N. d. ). In the second study, using the same test subjects, researchers analyzed how media violence affected their reaction to things that did not concern them personally. Again, the students were exposed to program content with various degrees of violence over a period of four days. Afterwards, the students were presented with conflict scenarios and asked how they would respond. The conflicts ranged from children fighting to the more serious domestic violence. Accordingly, the students who considered themselves as egotistic were found to accept violence as a way of solving conflicts (Harris, N. d. ). It would then be correct to state that these college students would grow up with the mentality that violence and aggressiveness is a normal part of life. As adults they may take it upon themselves to use violence to get their way. It would be not surprising if the same students were to then use violence to settle their domestic squabbles. They may engage domestic violence, a truly deviant and criminal behavior. In another cross-sectional study, some 2300 high school students were asked to list their favorite television programs and also provide a checklist of activities that ranged from fighting to serious delinquent behaviors. The programs were then analyzed for their violent content. Researchers found that the students whose favorite programs were violent also tended to exhibit violence. Hence, their checklists also reported aggressive and delinquent behaviors. It would then be correct to state these children frequently the violent television programs. Otherwise, how else the deviant behavior could be explained (TV Violence, 2003). It was then probable that these children would copy what they may have watched on television for some particular purposes. Maybe, use violence and aggressiveness to rob others and use the loot to buy drugs. In Summary The three studies above had one primal purpose. To determine how media violence affects deviant behavior. From the studies, it is clear that increased exposure to television media violence also leads to increased deviant behavior. To most people, aggressiveness and hostility are examples of deviant behaviors. In the three studies after exposure to television media violence the subjects were either openly hostile or aggressive. This is would be correct to conclude that indeed television media violence does influence deviant behavior in that individuals after exposure to television media violence engage more in behaviors that could be considered as deviant behavior. References. Bryant, C. (1989). Deviant behavior: Readings in the sociology of norm violations. London: Taylor & Francis. Defining media violence: It’s not so easy! (2007). Center for Media Literacy. Retrieved 17 April 2009 from http://www. medialit. org/reading_room/article23. html Harris, S. (N. d. ). Some violent movies can increase violent responses to provocation and acceptance of violence in real life. Retrieved 17 April 2009 from http://www. research. vt. edu/resmag/sc99/media_violence. html TV violence. (2003). Retrieved 17 April 2009 from http://www. kff. org/entmedia/upload/Key-Facts-TV-Violence. pdf